Opportunities in Health

Medicine

Many students enter WU with an interest in going to medical school after the BA degree.  A biology major provides excellent preparation for medical school; a biology major that includes at least 2 semesters of independent research (Biology 500) provides outstanding preparation for biological and/or biomedical research in graduate and/or medical school.

All students who plan to major in biology who have an interest in premedicine should enroll in Chemistry 111A in the fall of freshman year.  Severe difficulty in academic planning will result from omitting Chemistry 111A in the fall of freshman year since Chemistry 111A is the prerequisite for Biology 2960, the introductory course for biology majors and/or premedical students.

Biology 2960, 2970 and 3050 (Fundamentals/Principles of Biology I, II and III) are the introductory courses required of both biology majors and premedical students.  Biology 2960 is normally taken in the spring of freshman year.  Chemistry 111A is a prerequisite and Chemistry 112A is a corequisite of Biology 2960.  Biology 2970 is normally taken in the fall of sophomore year.  Both Biology 2960 and Chemistry 112A are prerequisites for Biology 2970.  Biology 3050 is normally taken in the spring of the sophomore year; Biology 2970 is a prerequisite of Biology 3050.  These courses in Principles of Biology are designed to be taken consecutively and together provide a strong foundation for further study in the life sciences.

Mathematics 131-132 is required for all biology majors and satisfies medical-school requirements for one year of college calculus.  Mathematics 233 and 320 are useful for students with interests in basic research.  Physics 117A-118A (or 197-198) is generally taken in the junior year by biology majors or pre-med students majoring in an area outside the sciences.  Premedical students considering either a chemistry, a physics, and/or an engineering major should follow the recommendations of the appropriate department concerning the timing of Physics 117A-118A.

MCATs (Medical College Admission Tests) are usually taken in April of the junior year.  MCATs are also offered in August just prior to the senior year; scores from the August MCATs arrive at medical schools after some admissions decisions have been completed, however.  All of the above required courses:  (1) should be completed for the MCATs; (2) are needed if the student will attend medical school; and (3) are needed by all biology majors.  Biology 181, a 1-unit credit/no credit course is highly recommended (but not required) for students with interests in biological and/or biomedical research.  The freshman seminar Bio 112 is a good choice for those with interests in biology and/or medicine who want an additional biology course in the fall of freshman year.

There are 9-11 distribution courses outside of the natural and physical sciences that are required for the B.A. in the College.  It is useful for the student to take 4-5 of these courses by the end of the second year to allow flexibility in course planning and scheduling in the junior and senior years, especially if the student chooses to take Independent Research.  A research experience can be critical if the student wishes to be competitive for admission to (1) Ph.D., (2) M.D., or (3) joint M.D./Ph.D. programs at research-oriented schools.  The joint M.D./Ph.D. program is quite attractive for students with an interest in academic medicine and basic research; some of these programs cover the costs of tuition and pay a yearly stipend for all years spent in medical and graduate training.  See http://www.nigms.nih.gov/Training/Mechanisms/NRSA/InstPredoc/PredocInst-MSTP.htm for a list of medical schools with M.D./Ph.D. programs.  An excellent time to take independent research (Biology 500) is in the junior and senior years.  Large open blocks of time in those years are very important since much of the independent research requires long hours not interrupted by classes; in addition, many students conduct their research at our Medical School and transportation time between the Medical School and the Main Campus is a factor in schedule planning during these semesters.  Completing half of the distribution requirements outside of the sciences by the end of the second year can be very helpful to students who enroll in independent research.  In addition, many medical schools require a course in English Composition such as EComp 100 or 199 as well as an additional course in English, English Literature, or English Composition; see the requirements of specific medical schools for details.

All students with interests in medicine should demonstrate their abilities to assist others by serving as a volunteer.  Important volunteer experiences can be obtained in a variety of ways, e.g., at a hospital, at a nursing home, in a camp or school for individuals in need of help, serving as a tutor, etc.  The Campus Y is an excellent resource to assist students in placement for volunteer experiences.  Vicki May, Outreach Coordinator, (x5-6846; may@biology.wustl.edu) is also an excellent person to contact about placement.  Students who would like academic credit for a volunteer "Experience in the Life Sciences" should consider enrollment in Biology 365.

For further information about medical schools and the medical school application process, contact Dean Carolyn Herman (x5-6897) in the College of Arts and Sciences Office.  For questions about these guidelines in medicine, contact Professor Paul Stein (x5-6824; stein@biology.wustl.edu) in the Biology Department.  The American Medical College Application Service is at http://www.aamc.org. For further information on medical schools see http://www.aamc.org/start.htm and the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT) web page at http://www.aamc.org/students/mcat.

The field of Dentistry covers a broad spectrum of  opportunities.  The General Dentist or Family Dentist is an individual involved in the routine maintenance and clinical diagnosis of the oral cavity.  This individual is trained in minor surgical procedures, oral prosthetic work, and some cosmetic Dentistry.  The General Dentist is usually associated with a number of specialists. Typically, an individual spends four years in Dental School (undergraduate dental degree) and one or two years in a family-practice residency program before joining a dental group or starting a practice.  There are also opportunities in the military and in such cases the US government will subsidize the cost of dental education.  Other areas of dentistry generally require advanced training in postgraduate Master's or specialty programs.  Such areas include orthodontics, periodontics, prosthedontics, pediatric dentistry, oral maxillofacial surgery, oral pathology, and forensic dentistry.  There is also opportunity for dental research careers with a combined DDS-Ph.D. training program.  Typically, such individuals are employed as faculty of Dental Schools or by pharmaceutical companies.

For information on these advanced programs it is recommended that individuals contact the Greater St. Louis Dental Society (13667 Manchester Road, St. Louis, MO, PH: 965-5960) or the American Dental Association (ADA), (211 E. Chicago Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611-2678, PH: 1-800-621-8099). 

Suggested courses for a student who is considering a career in dentistry would include Biology 3110, 3151, 334, 3411, 349 and 4580.  Art 107-108 would be helpful since excellent eye-hand coordination is required for the profession.  Many dental schools request that students applying to dental school take the standardized dental aptitude test before consideration for admission.  Finding summer work in a dental office is recommended to get first-hand experience of the profession.

The first year of Dental School is similar or identical to Medical School in the basic science courses required.  These usually include:  Human Gross Anatomy, Physiology, Histology, Cell Biology, Biochemistry, and Immunology/Microbiology.  There are also preclinical courses to prepare students to interact with patients and staff and, in general, learn the basic operation of the Dental Clinics.  The sophomore year includes courses such as oral pathology, radiology, and other preclinical courses to understand the clinical problems confronting dental clinicians.  Usually it is not until the second semester of the sophomore year and that summer when students begin to experience interactions with patients.  This period can best be described as a team apprentice-approach at most US Dental Schools.  In the sophomore year, the student is required to take and pass Part I of a National Dental Board Exam.  In the junior and senior years the student continues to take a variety of courses to understand and to treat oral diseases.  A majority of time is involved in fulfilling certain clinical objectives.  If all requirements are fulfilled, the individual must take Part II of a Dental National Board exam in order to receive his or her dental degree.  Some states require additional testing.  See http://www.gradschools.com/listings/menus/dental_menu.html for further information.

A genetic counselor helps individuals or families afflicted with genetic disease.  As genetic knowledge has increased, the definition of genetic disease has been broadened from the classic Mendelian diseases and chromosomal abnormalities to include common diseases (such as coronary artery disease, hypertension, Alzheimer’s disease, etc.) that have a strong genetic component.  The duties of a genetic counselor vary, but can include helping to diagnose the disease, counseling individuals about the nature of the disease and its genetic basis, informing individuals and their relatives about the risk of carrying the disease or being affected by it, requesting and/or performing genetic tests either to assess risk or to evaluate the genetic state of the individual, and working with patients and physicians in choosing treatment options.

There are two principal career paths for entering the field of genetic counseling.  The first is to obtain an M.D.  Medical doctors with an interest in genetic counseling have traditionally specialized in pediatrics because the bulk of classic Mendelian diseases and chromosomal abnormalities first become apparent in infants (about a third of all pediatric inpatients in U.S. hospitals are afflicted with a genetic or chromosomal disease).  However, this situation is beginning to change as genetics is increasingly being used to assess risk and effective treatment of diseases affecting older individuals.  Those individuals choosing the medical path to genetic counseling are usually involved primarily in diagnosis and treatment of the diseases.  The other path to genetic counseling is to pursue graduate work in human genetics, either at the Master’s or doctoral levels.  There are now several Master’s degree programs in genetic counseling that lead to accreditation as a genetic counselor by the American Board of Medical Genetics.  Individuals pursuing this path often emphasize risk assessment and prediction, family counseling, and the performance of genetic testing.

For either career path, biology majors interested in genetic counseling should take additional courses in genetics, such as Biol 324 (Human Genetics), Biol 3371 or 337W (Eukaryotic Genomes), Biol 4181 (Population Genetics), Biol 4342/434W (Research Explorations in Genomics) and Biol 437 (Laboratory on DNA Manipulation).  Because genetic counseling involves risk prediction and the manipulation of probabilities, students also should take Math 320 (Elementary Probability and Statistics).  For those students wishing to work with the common diseases that affect older individuals and have a strong genetic component, additional courses in mathematics and statistics are strongly recommended, such as Math 439 (Linear Statistical Models), Math 493 (Probability), and Math 494 (Mathematical Statistics).

Additional information can be obtained from the National Society of Genetic Counselors, Executive Office, 233 Canterbury Drive, Wallingford, PA 19086 (phone: 215/872-7608) or the American Board of Genetic Counseling http://www.faseb.org/genetics/abgc/abgcmenu.htm

Health Administration

Students who are considering a career in health care, but who think that they might be more interested in management and administration rather than in patient care, should consider a career in health administration.  Because of changes in our health-care system, there are now many diverse career options for those trained in health administration.  For example, health-care executives typically have management positions in hospitals, clinics, nursing homes, ambulatory care facilities, health maintenance organizations (HMOs), health-related associations, consulting firms, public health organizations and other government agencies.  By working in these positions, health-care administrators have the opportunity to make significant contributions to improving health care in the communities served by these institutions and organizations.

Qualifications for an entry-level position in health administration include a Master's degree, usually in health-care management from an accredited school, and an internship, fellowship or previous work experience in a health-care organization or other business setting.  There are many accredited colleges and universities in the USA and Canada (including Washington University) that offer suitable graduate programs.  In general, earning a Master's degree from these graduate programs takes two years.  The programs include course work in health-care policy and law, marketing, health-care financing, human resources and other topics relevant to health-care management.  Many programs include supervised internships, residencies or fellowships in a clinic, hospital or health-care agency.

As an example of the requirements for admission into a Master's degree program in health administration, the requirements for admission to Washington University Medical School's Master in Health Administration Program are a bachelor's degree and completion of the Graduate Record Exam (GRE) or the Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT).  No specific undergraduate major field of study is required for admission to the program.  However, an introductory course in accounting is required.  Previous experience working in health care is recommended.  A double major in biology and economics would provide strong preparation.

The Natural Sciences Learning Center has a pamphlet containing additional information on careers in Health Administration and a list of accredited graduate programs.  For further information contact Marilyn Hummert, Administrative Coordinator at the Washington University Health Administration Program (362-3274) or the American College of Healthcare Executives, One North Franklin St.; Suite 1700; Chicago, IL 60606-3491 (phone: 312-424-2800; http://www.ACHE.org).

Occupational therapists are dedicated to helping people to develop skills and to adapt to disabilities so that their lives become more productive and meaningful.  As an applied social and biological science, occupational therapy benefits persons of all ages whose ability to engage in life's tasks is impaired by physical or mental disease, injury, birth defect or aging.  Occupational therapists help individuals develop, regain or retain the skills they need to learn, to play, to earn a living and to tend to their personal needs.

At the present time this is a highly marketable career with salaries (for Master's degree) ranging from $32,000 (starting) to $80,000 per year.  Students interested in a Master's degree program in occupational therapy need specific prerequisite courses; most of these courses are part of the Washington University B.A. in Biology (an upper-level course in biology such as Bio 3110; Chem 111A-112A and Chem 151-152, Physics 117A; and English Composition).  However, several concern specific areas in biology, psychology, and sociology/anthropology.  Courses most often required include a course in human physiology (such as Bio 328, Principles in Human Physiology); a course in abnormal psychology (such as Psych 354); a course in developmental psychology (such as Psych 321); a course in sociology/anthropology (such as Anth 301B, Individual, Family, and Community); a course in political science or economics (such as Econ 103B, Microeconomics or Econ 352, Health Economics); a course in statistics (such as Psych 300 or Math 1011 or 320); and a course in ethics or logic (such as Phil 100G, Introduction to Logic and Critical Analysis, or Phil 233F, Biomedical Ethics).  Competence in medical terminology is often required and can be gained through Classics 325D or through guided study.  However, entrance requirements vary among schools; one should consult the catalogues or application brochures for the schools of interest.

Typically, a professional Master's Degree in occupational therapy takes approximately 2.5 complete years.  This time includes a 6-month internship (non-paid) which is arranged by the degree-awarding institution.  A final certification exam is required.

Courses in a Master's degree program typically include "Functional Assessment," "Applied Anatomy," "Therapeutic Intervention," and "Administration" as examples.  A complete description of course work and prerequisites for the Washington University Program in Occupational Therapy, and a description of occupational therapy careers are present in the Natural Sciences Learning Center.  Also, the Occupational Therapy Program at Washington University can be reached at 314-286-1600.  Career advisors are willing to discuss occupational therapy as a career with anyone interested.  Further information is available at http://www.otjoblink.org/links/link05.asp

The mission of public health is to "fulfill society's interest in assuring conditions in which people can be healthy" (Institute of Medicine, Committee for the Study of the Future of Public Health, Division of Health Care Services. 1988. The Future of Public Health. National Academy Press, Washington, DC).  Public health serves this mission through organized interdisciplinary efforts that address the physical, mental and environmental health concerns of communities and populations at risk for disease and injury.  Health promotion and disease prevention technologies encompass a broad array of functions and expertise, including three core public health functions: (1) assessing and monitoring the health of communities and populations at risk to identify health problems and priorities; (2) formulating public policies, in collaboration with community and government leaders, designed to solve identified local and national health problems and priorities; (3) assuring that all populations have access to appropriate and cost-effective care, including health promotion and disease prevention services, and evaluation of the effectiveness of that care.  For detailed information on public-health professions and schools offering graduate degrees in public health, see the website of the Association of Schools of Public Health (ASPH): http://www.asph.org.

Veterinary Medicine

Veterinarians treat and prevent animal disease.  Because of the great diversity of species treated, there is great variety in the work of veterinarians.  Most veterinarians work in private practice, either on their own or as partners in a group practice.  Many private practices specialize in the treatment of small animals, primarily dogs and cats.  Increasingly such practices also treat birds and a variety of exotic animals.  Mixed animal practices may also work with a variety of farm animals, as well as some nondomestic animals.  A minority of veterinary practices specialize in large animals, usually with an emphasis on horses and cattle.  There are many opportunities for veterinary work in areas other than private practice.  For example, in private industry veterinarians may conduct research on nutrition or drug effects for pharmaceutical companies or safeguard the health of laboratory animal colonies.  Veterinarians also work for zoos and aquariums, and may act as consultants to wildlife preservation groups.  A variety of government agencies employ veterinarians in the areas of meat inspection, animal quarantine, and the care of wildlife in our parks.  Academic institutions in the biomedical fields employ veterinarians as clinicians, researchers, and teachers.

Licensing to practice general veterinary medicine requires graduation with a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) degree from an accredited college of veterinary medicine.  Licensing requires satisfactory performance on the national board examination, as well as other requirements controlled by the states.  After graduation, many veterinarians choose to specialize, either in a clinical specialty or in work with a particular species.  Specialization involves a one-year internship followed by two or three years of residency training.

Students interested in a veterinary career should obtain experience working in a veterinary practice, as such experience is required for admission to most or all veterinary schools. Course requirements vary with the institution, but always include a solid basis of chemistry (both inorganic and organic), physics, and biology.  Generally, courses in biochemistry, genetics, microbiology, and nutrition are also specified.  Biology majors interested in veterinary medicine should take our upper-level Vertebrate Structure Laboratory (Biol 3110) and Endocrinology (Biol 3151).

Additional information can be obtained from the Association of American Veterinary Medical Colleges, 1101 Vermont Avenue NW, Suite 710, Washington DC 20005-3521 (phone 202-371-9195; http://aavmc.org), or the American Veterinary Medical Association, 1931 North Meacham Road, Suite 100, Schaumburg, IL 60173-4360 (phone: 1-800-248-AVMA; http://www.avma.org).  Excellent books entitled "Veterinary Medical school Admission Requirements in the United States and Canada" and "The Preveterinary Planning Guide" are available from the Betz Publishing Co., P.O. Box 1745, Rockville MD 20849-9947 (phone: 1-800-634-4365)