GRADUATE SCHOOL IN BIOLOGYIf you are interested in teaching and/or doing research at the college/university level in biology, a Ph.D. in a specialized area of biology is required. In addition, many research positions in industry, particularly directing a research project, require a Ph.D. A Ph.D. would be of benefit in some other (non-research) positions in industry as well (see information on biotech/business). Ph.D.-level biological scientists also can fill important needs in the areas of public policy, law, and teaching at other levels (i.e., informal science education, junior-college teaching, etc.). Please also see information on these related areas in this booklet if you are interested. Most Ph.D. programs in the biological sciences provide a tuition waiver and pay stipends to cover living expenses to enrolled students. Completing a Ph.D. usually takes about five years, most of which is spent performing research. Most programs begin with a year of course work, during which a research lab is identified through a series of research rotations. Teaching assistantships are often part of the training. Generally, in addition to completing a Ph.D., most Ph.D. biological scientists spend several years (2-4) as post-doctoral fellows, performing additional research, often to specialize further in their research area before seeking a faculty position or another job. It is no longer common or necessary for those who plan to get a Ph.D. first to complete a Master's degree. The Biology Department recommends that those interested in entering Ph.D. programs consult with their Biology Faculty advisors for recommendations about courses that will best prepare them. To some extent, the courses selected depend on the area of biology that the student finds particularly interesting and in which (s)he plans to specialize (see below), but all students interested in pursuing Ph.D. studies should take the core sequence, Biol 2960/2970. A rigorous and broad program of biology courses (rather than taking only the minimum courses required to complete the major) is recommended. To obtain a comprehensive view of many modern techniques used by biologists in a large number of areas of specialization, Biol 334, Biol 3371 or 337W, Biol 437, and Biol 451 or 4501 are suggested, although some specialty areas will emphasize other programs of study. Students also should get involved in research as early as possible; participation in Biol 500 during the junior and senior years is highly recommended. Summer research opportunities are particularly valuable for students interested in entering Ph.D. programs. Such opportunities exist on campus (see section on research opportunities, Page 10) and at other universities. Information on research opportunities at other universities is being compiled in the Natural Sciences Learning Center. Participation in a summer research program at a university where a graduate program of potential interest is located can be particularly valuable. These summer programs often serve as recruiting tools for graduate programs. Students known to the faculty of the program through successful participation in their institution's summer research programs have a decided advantage in admissions. Most graduate programs look very favorably upon research experience gained through working for 1-2 years as a research assistant (technician) after graduation. Those who take "time off" to work in lab often have the advantage of more advanced skills, greater familiarity with how research problems are approached, and greater focus upon entering graduate school. This type of experience can be invaluable in determining whether pursuing Ph.D. studies is an appropriate path. Information on graduate programs in biology can be found in Peterson's Guide to Graduate Study. The Guide for Biology and Agriculture can be found in the Biology Library. Peterson's Guides in all areas are in Olin Library. Peterson's Guide is available via the internet (http://www.petersons.com/graduate). Peterson's Guide lists the faculty associated with the various graduate programs. Identifying faculty associated with a program is the first step to evaluating the suitability of the program. Often reading recent published work of faculty in a program of potential interest is the best way to evaluate whether a program is appropriate. An additional resource for information on graduate study is the Career Center, or "Cell and Molecular Biology Online," (http://www.cellbio.com). An understanding of the molecules that compose the cell - their structure, function, and interactions - is the core of our efforts in biochemistry. Like all of the other subdisciplines, the intellectual possibilities in this area have expanded rapidly with new molecular tools. Students interested in graduate study in biochemistry are in most cases best served by completing either the biology track in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (see Page 3) or the chemistry major with concentration in Biochemistry. These programs require that the student take physical chemistry (Chem 401 and 402) and a selection of upper-level biology and chemistry classes, including Biol 451 or 4501. Microbiology (Biol 349) and Microbial Physiology and Biochemistry (Bio 4490) provide a strong foundation in biochemistry of bacteria. A good grounding in genetics, cell and molecular biology is also advised; this preparation can be obtained by taking Biol 3050, 334 and 3371 or 337W. Research experience is essential and should be sought as early as practical.There are many excellent graduate programs throughout the country. Reading research literature as well as university materials can help you to identify ones of interest to you. A biomathematician or biophysicist utilizes physical and/or mathematical approaches to help solve biological and biomedical problems. A biophysicist may for example use x-ray crystallography to study protein structure, and a biomathematician may develop mathematical models to explain electrical activity in the heart. Common to all of these fields is the application of techniques traditionally employed by physicists or mathematicians. A biophysicist may develop and use complex instrumentation or computer software, or may apply a knowledge of physical laws to biological problems. Examples include the design of better brain scanners, the development of computer programs to analyze and to compare DNA sequences, or the modeling of cell motility based on the laws of mechanics. A biomathematician employs rigorous mathematical analysis in biological problems. Examples here include the development of mathematical models to describe changes in population structure, or the use of statistics to analyze complicated quantitative data resulting from biological experiments. For graduate work in these fields, prospective students should look beyond program names. Some universities offer specific graduate programs entitled Biophysics or Biomathematics. Other universities often have researchers working in the same fields, but they may be part of a larger department such as biology, physics or engineering. Guidance in selecting appropriate schools can come from reading some of the primary scientific literature in the field to identify prospective graduate mentors, and also by consulting local experts. A good place to start on campus is with faculty members in the areas mentioned above. Students interested in these fields should take course work in mathematics and physics beyond that required for the biology major. To get a head start, it may be advisable to take Physics 117A/118A during the summer after the freshman year. Recommended courses beyond those required for the biology major are Math 1201 (C programming), 233 (multivariable calculus), 309 (matrix algebra) and 320 (probability and statistics). The preceding plus Math 318 and one other upper-level elective course in math are sufficient for a math minor. Other courses of particular interest in math include Math 217 (differential equations) and Math 312 (dynamical systems). For students with an interest in biophysics, 17 units of physics are sufficient for a minor. Physics courses that should be considered are Phys 217, 218 (quantum physics), Biol/Phys 360 (Biophysics Laboratory) and Phys 421, 422 or in Electrical Engineering EE 314M (electromagnetism). For details on the Biomedical Physics Minor, see page 7. Also of interest in Electrical Engineering is EE 280 (electrical networks). Students interested in biomechanics should consider Mechanical Engineering ME 231, 232, 241, 370 and Phys 314. For those interested in biomathematics, courses in Systems Science and Mathematics may be relevant, such as SSM 144, 202, 351A. For those with interests in biomedical imaging, relevant courses include SSM 147, EE 455, 468A and Phys 316. In addition, summer research opportunities or Biol 200/500 experiences should be sought with faculty at the Institute for Biomedical Computing, in the Bioengineering program (see also Bioengineering in this brochure), the Department of Physics, and the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics. Note that Hughes Fellowships are available on a competitive basis to support summer work in this area. For additional information about biophysics, students may wish to contact the Biophysical Society. Besides providing answers to specific questions and helping students make contacts with professionals in the field, the society also publishes a brochure entitled "Careers in Biophysics". For information, contact the Biophysical Society, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814; phone 301-530-7114. A web site for biophysics (http://www.biophysics.org) contains information about the Biophysical Society and has links to abstracts from the Biophysical Journal, as well as a listing of biophysics graduate programs with links to the home pages for these programs. For those interested in Graduate Programs in Developmental Biology, the core sequence (Biol 2960/2970), Biol 3191 (Molecular Mechanisms in Development), Biol 3371 or 337W (Eukaryotic Genomes), Biol 334 (Cell Biology), Biol 437 (DNA Manipulation), and Biol 451 or 4810 (General Biochemistry) are highly recommended to provide sufficient background in the areas of biology upon which the student will need to draw. Also of interest are Bio 3041 (Plant Biology and Genetic Engineering), Biol 324 (Human Genetics) and Biol 4028 (From Seed to Senescence: The Genetics, Development, and Cell Biology of Plants), which gives exposure to development of plants. Biol 4182 (Macroevolution) covers topics at the interface of development and evolution. For help in finding an appropriate graduate program, students can consult faculty members with interests in Developmental Biology (see faculty listings of the Division of Biology and Biomedical Science). If a student has an interest in a particular area of development, one effective method of finding appropriate programs is to determine the graduate program affiliations of the prominent researchers in the area, using research papers to identify their university affiliations and catalogs or Peterson's guide to identify programs available at that university. Other faculty participating in the program can be identified through Peterson's guide or by writing to the program for information. The range of interests of the faculty in the program is often the key factor in identifying which programs are the best match for the individual. Below, some programs that are noted for developmental biology research opportunities are listed. However, there are many other programs where students would find excellent research opportunities in this area. Many combined programs in cell and molecular biology have significant numbers of faculty with interests in developmental biology; in many cases, developmental biology is not listed in the program title (as seen below).
Graduate study in this area combines population genetics, phylogenetics and ecological perspectives to study the origins and maintenance of biodiversity. It is a diverse and synthetic area that can combine field studies with molecular biology and mathematics to gain an understanding of evolutionary history and environmental biology. Population-genetic studies ask: "What kinds of genetic variation occur in natural populations? How do population-genetic processes lead to the evolution of new species and adaptation? How does population structure affect rates of speciation and adaptive evolution, and which breeding strategies are optimal for conserving genetic variation to enhance the survival of endangered species?" Studies of phylogeny ask "What are the evolutionary relationships of different plant and animal species? How do historically acquired developmental and functional constraints channel morphological and ecological evolution in different lineages, and what kinds of developmental processes underlie the evolutionary diversification of different plant and animal groups?" Ecological experiments provide crucial information on how organisms meet environmental challenges: "At which stages of the life cycle is mortality most severe and how do different species interact to establish ecological communities?" Graduate study in evolutionary and population biology prepares students for careers in ecology, evolutionary biology, systematics, and in the biological aspects of environmental and conservation sciences, either in academic institutions, in governmental agencies such as U.S. Fish and Wildlife, or in private conservation agencies such as the Nature Conservancy or World Wildlife. Students interested in graduate study in this area should include some of the following courses, which offer excellent preparation for graduate-level study: Biol 3501, (Evolution), Biol 4170 (Population Ecology), Biol 4181 (Population Genetics), Biol 4182 (Macroevolution), Biol 4183 (Molecular Evolution), Biol 419 (Community Ecology), Biol 4193 (Experimental Ecology Laboratory), and Biol 4202 (Evolutionary Genetics). Students should take Math 2200 or 320 (Elementary Probability and Statistics) and Math 322 (Biostatistics) for important background in statistics. Biol 437 (Lab on DNA Manipulation) will be useful in many cases. Opportunities for research experience, either during the academic year or in the summer, should be sought. Information on summer field opportunities that come to the Biology Department can be found in the Natural Sciences Learning Center. With the advent of gene cloning and the undertaking of the Human Genome Project, the field of genetics is changing rapidly. Geneticists are actively involved in studying patterns of development, mechanisms of inheritance, the basis of human genetic disease, and the nature of inherited behaviors. Geneticists work in medical centers, assist in forensic cases, teach and do research in universities, colleges, and institutes, and participate in the biotechnology industry. Genetic analysis, and potentially genetic therapy, are becoming increasingly important in health care, and are leading toward a paradigm shift in the way we think about the practice of medicine. The biology major provides good preparation for work towards a Ph.D. in genetics. Majors with interests in this area should be sure to include Biol 437 (Lab in DNA Manipulation) in their programs. Depending on the particular area of interest, Biol 3191 (Molecular Mechanisms of Development), Biol 324 (Human Genetics), Biol 334 (Cell Biology), Biol 3371 or 337W (Eukaryotic Genomes), Biol 4024 (Plant Cells and Proteins Laboratory), Biol 4181 (Population Genetics), Biol 4183 (Molecular Evolution) and Biol 4342/434W (Research Explorations in Genomics) also should be considered. Advanced courses available on the Medical School Campus include Biol 5491, Advanced Genetics (requires graduate standing or permission of the instructor) and Biol 5011, Ethics and Research (a one-unit course open to undergraduates). Certainly a student interested in graduate school in this area will want to become involved in research in a relevant lab using Biol 500 or a summer research opportunity. Many universities offer strong graduate programs in genetics. Genome Centers of the Human Genome Project are located at Baylor College of Medicine, University of California at Berkeley (campus and Lawrence Berkeley Lab), Salk Institute, Stanford University, University of Iowa, University of Michigan, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, University of Utah, Washington University in St. Louis, and Whitehead Institute at MIT. Further information on careers in genetics can be obtained from The Genetics Society of America, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814-3998, or The American Society of Human Genetics at the same address. Neurosciences (NS) form a diverse and fascinating field including Behavioral NS, Cellular NS, Cognitive NS, Developmental NS, Molecular NS, and Systems NS. The annual meeting of the Society for Neurosciences (http://www.sfn.org/) in the USA attracts more than 20,000 participants. An undergraduate Biology major is excellent background for graduate study in NS. In addition, a minor or major in Psychology is helpful for those with interests in Behavioral NS or Cognitive NS. In the Biology Department, Professor Erik Herzog studies the neural mechanisms responsible for circadian rhythms, Professor Paul Stein studies the neural mechanisms of the turtle’s motor behavior, and Professor Emeritus Nobuo Suga studies the neural mechanisms of the bat’s auditory behavior. Many courses in NS are offered by the Biology Department and the Psychology Department. On the Medical Campus, the Neurosciences Program in the Division of Biology and Biological Sciences offers many graduate courses in NS. The Neuroscience Program at Washington University is one of the top graduate programs for doctoral training in NS (the Washington University NS program brochure is located at the website http://neuroscience.wustl.edu). The Department of Philosophy offers a doctoral program in Philosophy, Neuroscience, and Psychology (PNP). (A) Courses offered in the Department of Biology. The following courses for general background should be taken by all students with interests in NS:
At least one, preferably two, of the following basic courses should be taken by students with interests in neuroscience.
At least two semesters of Independent Work (Biol 500) should be taken by any student interested in doctoral studies in NS. Students with strong interests in molecular, cellular, and/or developmental NS should also consider the following courses.
Students with strong interests in Systems NS also should consider Biol 328, Principles in Human Physiology. Students with special interests in the auditory system may consider this somewhat specialized course: Biol 5811 Neural Basis of Acoustic Communication. (B) Courses offered in the Department of Psychology. Psychology courses of direct physiological relevance include Psych 330, Sensation and Perception; Psych 340, Biological Psychology; Psych 360, Cognitive Psychology; and Psych 3604, Cognitive Neuroscience. Students should consult the Department of Psychology for further details. (C) Courses offered on the Medical School Campus. Most courses offered by the Neuroscience Graduate Program are designed for graduate students, require considerable reading in the research literature, and meet at times that are not compatible with most undergraduate schedules. These courses are best taken in graduate school after the biology major is completed. (D) Graduate schools with Neuroscience Programs. Almost all universities have neuroscientists as members of their faculty; many universities have a neuroscience program, especially those with medical schools. Washington University has one of the strongest Neuroscience programs in the country and the world. The Association of Neuroscience Departments and Programs maintains a website (http://www.andp.org/) that includes information about Neuroscience Training Programs in North America. A student interested in the field of Neurosciences should first examine this website and then make an appointment with Professors Erik Herzog (314-935-8635) and Paul Stein (314-935-6824) to discuss his/her interest regarding a choice of graduate schools. Students also should examine the research-interest website for the Neuroscience Program at Washington University (http://neuroscience.wustl.edu) for research opportunities. All life on earth depends on plants. Plant photosynthesis provides by far the dominant mechanism for capturing energy from outside the earth and converting it to the usable components of the biosphere. For this reason, plant biologists often say: "Plants are primary. Everything else is secondary and derivative." Studying plant biology allows the student and the professional biologist an opportunity to understand and to investigate fundamental general life processes as well as processes unique to plants. Experimental plant biology is informed by the insights of evolution, the mechanisms of chemistry and the techniques of biochemistry and molecular biology. The areas of the systematic relationships among plants, the dynamics of plant populations, diversity and plant ecology are other areas that command the detailed attention of biologists all over the world. Students of plant biology take the core science courses in common with all students completing a biology major. Additional chemistry, math and physics will open more areas of investigation to you. A student who likes chemistry might consider a second semester of organic lab, synthetic organic chemistry, and physical chemistry. Take as much statistics as you enjoy. If you have a background in electronics, build on that. In addition to courses that focus on plants (Biol 3041 Plant Biology and Genetic Engineering; Biol 4023 How Plants Work: Physiology, Growth, and Metabolism; Biol 4024 Plant Cells and Proteins Laboratory; Biol 4028 From Seed to Senescence: The Genetics, Development, and Cell Biology of Plants), no plant biologist should miss Cell Biology (Biol 334), Biochemistry (Biol 451 or 4810), Eukaryotic Genomes (Biol 3371 or 337W), and the laboratory in DNA Manipulation (Biol 437). Finally Biol 349 will introduce you to microbiology. For a student whose interests are in natural history, plant systematics, ecology or population biology, courses to consider include Ecology (Biol 381, Biol 4170 or Biol 419), Evolution (Biol 3501), Population Genetics (Biol 4181), and Molecular Evolution (Biol 4183). Students interested in a career in plant biology should participate in research early, perhaps the first or second semester of sophomore year. Students are welcome in the research laboratories of the plant biology faculty on the main campus, the Missouri Botanical Garden, one of the premier plant systematics institutions in the world, and the Danforth Plant Science Center. Students interested in field biology should pay special attention to summer courses and research at biological field stations; announcements of such opportunities are kept in the Natural Sciences Learning Center Natural Sciences Learning Center |